نشریه تاریخ و فرهنگ
سال پنجاه و سوم شماره 2 (پیاپی 107، پاییز و زمستان 1400)

The residence of Iranian elites in the Ottoman empire resulted in major changes in different parts of government and influenced various events. These elites were some of the most influential variables in the military changes that occurred at the time. Their presence and influence can be explored through the different aspects of military actions taken during Salīm the First and Sulaymān Qānūnī’s age. The present study analyses the role of Iranian political and military elites in the Ottaman’s attacks on the Ṣafavīds. We also explore the different forms of co-operation between elites and Ottomans through the battles of Chāldurān in A.H. 940/A.D. 1533 and A.H. 955/A.D. 1548. The study recognizes Iranian elites as major factors giving rise to the battles between the Ottomans and the Ṣafavīds. In addition, it is concluded that some of the Iranian elites joined the Ottoman army and thus strengthened their army and weakened the Ṣafavīds’. The Iranian refugees’ role is also visible through the achievements of the Ottomans.

Between the years A.H. 264-86/A.D. 877-899, Muslims launched a series of attacks to conquer the harbor town of Syracuse. The present study explores the background and reasons behind these attacks. It is concluded that Muslim attacks on Syracuse were carried out with the purpose of spreading Islam and getting access to the financial resources of Syracuse to dominate the Mediterranean Sea trade route. After about two centuries the attacks lead to the conquest of Syracuse. However, it was to the dismay of Christians and did not benefit the Muslims either, because they did not adopt the right strategies to protect the town. On one hand, it led to the destruction of cultural-civilizational monuments and thus escalated emigration to safer lands of Byzantium and caused a drop in the town’s population. On the other hand, Sicily’s Muslim military officials were in conflict with the governor of Syracuse (ʾIbn Samanih) and the Sycarusan’s greediness in conquering more parts of Sicily pushed ʾIbn Samanih into seeking help from Rujār Normandy to defeat his political rivals. The Normans eventually recaptured Syracuse in A.H. 479-AD. 1086, claiming that a Muslim by the name of ʾIbn ʿAbbād had committed rubbery and had abused Christian churches.

Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk did most of his country and military service during the time of Alp-Arsalān and Malikshāh, and as a minister under their rule. In Sayr-ul-mulūk he expresses his ideas regarding bureaucracy and different levels of governance, including the military structure of the state, which is one of the main pillars of power. The present study collects data using written sources, and examines the data using content analysis. We attempt to answer the following questions: “As a bureaucrat, what views did Niẓām-ul-Mulk hold towards the military?” and “Which merits does he mention when it comes to the professional status of military?” In other words, the purpose of the present study is to define the status of the military, and to extract a model of military merits based on Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk’s viewpoints.It is suggested that the military are given major focus in Sayr-ul-mulūk. Although Niẓām-ul-Mulk criticizes the military’s activities during his own time, he enumerates several merits in Sayr-ul-mulūk as important factors in forming the military’s status. These include military experience and strength, respecting the superiors, not intruding on people’s property (professional aspect), the multi-ethnic nature of the military, and the neatness of military men’s looks and tools (personal aspect).

Sulṭān Ḥusayn Bāyqarā’s era is the golden age of Arts in Tīmūrīd period. Following the decrease of his political and military power, patronage of the arts was almost completely taken away from the Sulṭān and the Royal Family’s monopoly. It was then put into the hands of government officials and religious ʿUlamāʾ. Their political and economic influence increased daily as they received various financial privileges from the Sulṭān, especially vast Suyūrghāls (lands) and tax exemptions. With the Sulṭān taking up centralism and reforming the privileges of land owners, the arts turned into a crucial pretext for maintaining the political and financial status of government officials. The present study applies the descriptive-analytical method to answer this fundamental question: “What purposes did the rulers and courtiers (art patrons) of this era serve in their patronage of the arts?” The study illustrates that fear of removal from office and impressment served as the main motive behind the patronage of arts, and especially patronage of architecture. By endowing their property for running artistic projects and by patronizing artists, they gained huge financial benefits, kept their wealth from being seized, and took a leap towards pleasing the Sulṭān.

Taṣavvuf and Karramiyya were both influential forces in Eastern Iran. An instance of their social influence was the spread of Islam in this area. The present paper uses the comparative approach to explore the reasons behind Ṣūfīs’ and Karramiyya’s success in spreading Islam. The study applies the descriptive-analytical method in an attempt to answer this question: What was the main cause of Ṣūfīs’ and Karramiyya’s success in spreading Islam? The paper reveals that this success can be attributed to the Ṣūfīs’ manners and ways of communicating with people, in addition to the fact that they adopted the right commercial methods. These commercial methods include asceticism, simple and clear language, slogans aiming for equality, and making use of the Khānqāh. The Karramiyya’s success in spreading Islam can be attributed to their ʾIrjāʾī beliefs, asceticism, simple language, applying the Fiṣalī Method, and making use of the Khānqāh in order to spread their beliefs. The Ṣūfīs achieved more success in spreading Islam, compared to Karramiyya. That is because alongside employing the aforementioned methods and ideas, they talked about a God whose kindness overrode his anger. Such a view would surely appeal more to the people.